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2021-06-10 08:51:50 Are you as smart as you think?
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2021-06-09 18:58:02 Notes on s-Block Elements:

Covalent Character:.

Small cation and large anion favors covalency.

Order: LiCl > NaCl > KCl > RbCl > CsCl & . LiI > LiBr > LiCl > LiF

Greater the charge on the cation greater is its polarizing power and hence larger is the covalent character: Na+CI- < Mg+2CI2 < AI+3 CI3

Greater the charge on the anion, more easily it gets polarized thereby imparting more covalent character to the compound formed eg covalent character increase in the order. NaCI < Na2SO4 < Na3PO4

c) Lattice Energies: Amount of energy required to separate one mole of solid ionic compound into its gaseous ions.

Greater the lattice energy, higher is the melting point of the alkali metals halide and lower is its solubility in water

d) Hydration Energy: Amount of energy released when one mole of gaseous ions combine with water to form hydrated ions.

M+ (g) + aq → M+ (aq) + hydration energy

X- (g) + aq → X- (aq) + hydration energy

Higher the hydration energy of the ions greater is the solubility of the compound in water.

The solubility of the most of alkali metal halides except those of fluorides decreases on descending the group since the decrease in hydration energy is more than the corresponding decrease in the lattice energy.

Due to high hydration energy of Li+ ion, Lithium halides are soluble in water except LiF which is sparingly soluble due to its high lattice energy.

For the same alkali metal the melting point decreases in the order

fluoride > chloride > bromide > iodide

For the same halide ion, the melting point of lithium halides are lower than those of the corresponding sodium halides and thereafter they decrease as we move down the group from Na to Cs.

The low melting point of LiCl (887 K) as compared to NaCl is probably because LiCl is covalent in nature and NaCl is ionic.

Anomalous Behavior of Lithium and diagonal relationship with Magnesium:

Li has anomalous properties due to

Very small size

High polarizing Power

Lithium show diagonal relationship with magnesium because both elements have almost same polarizing power.

The melting point and boiling point of lithium are comparatively high.

Lithium is much harder than the other alkali metals. Magnesium is also hard metal.

Lithium reacts with oxygen least readily to form normal oxide whereas other alkali metals form peroxides and superoxides.

LiOH like Mg (OH)2 is weak base. Hydroxides of other alkali metals are strong bases.

Due to their appreciable covalent nature, the halides and alkyls of lithum and magnesium are soluble in organic solvents.

Unlike elements of group 1 but like magnesium. Lithium forms nitride with nitrogen.6Li + N2 → 2Li3N

LiCl is deliquescent and crystallizes as a hydrate, LiCI2H2O. Other alkali metals do not form hydrates. also forms hydrate, MgCI2.8H2O .

Unlike other alkali metals lithium reacts directly with carbon to form an ionic carbide. Magnesium also forms a similar carbide.

The carbonates, hydroxides and nitrates of lithium as well as magnesium decompose on heating.
Li2CO3 → Li2O + CO2

MgCO3 → MgO + CO2

2LiOH → Li2O + H2O

Mg (OH)2 → MgO + H2O

4LiNO3 → 2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2

2Mg ( NO3)2 → 2Mg + 4NO2 +O2

The corresponding salts of other alkali metals are stable towards heat.
Lithium nitrate, on heating, decomposes to give lithium oxide, Li2O whereas other alkali metals nitrate decomposes to give the corresponding nitrite.

4LiNO3 → 2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2

2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2

2KNO3 → 2KNO2 + O2

Li2CO3, LiOH, LiF and Li3PO4 are the only alkali metal salts which are insoluble in water. The corresponding magnesium compounds are also insoluble in water.

Hydrogen carbonates of both lithium and magnesium can not be isolated in solid state. Hydrogen carbonates of other alkali metals can be isolated in solid state.

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):
a. Properties

NaOH is stable towards heat but is reduced to metal when heated with carbon

2NaOH + 2C → 2Na +2CO + H2

FeCl3 + 3NaOH →Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl

NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + NH3 (pungent smell) + H2O Open / Comment

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2021-06-09 08:40:06 Useful activities

(i) Decay of organic wastes: Many saprotrophic bacteria act as natural scavengers by continuously removing the harmful organic wastes (i.e., dead remains of animals and plants) from man's environment. They decompose the organic matter by putrifaction and decay. The simple compounds produced as a result of decomposition and decay (viz., carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, ammonia, etc.) are either released back into the environment for recycling or absorbed by the plants as food. Thus, the bacteria play duel role by disposing of the dead bodies and wastes of organisms and by increasing the fertility of soil.

(ii) Role in improving soil fertility: Saprotrophic bacteria present in soil perform various activities for their survival. Some of these activities improve the fertility of soil by formation of humus, manure, etc.

(a) Humus: The microbial decomposition of organic matter and mineralization results in the formation of complex amorphous substance called humus. The humus improves the aeration, water holding capacity, solubility of soil minerals, oxidation-reduction potential and buffering capacity of the soil.

(b) Composting: It is conversion of farm refuse, dung and other organic wastes into manure by the activity of saprotrophic bacteria (e.g., Bacillus stearothermophilus, Clostridium thermocellum, Thermomonospora spp, etc.)

(c) Adding sulphates: A few sulphur bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) add sulphur into the soil by converting H2S into sulphates.

(iii) Sewage, disposal: Ability of anaerobic bacteria to purify the organic matter is used in the the sewage disposal system of cities. The faeces are stored in covered reservoirs and allowed to purify. The solid matter is decomposed into liquidy sludge which is passed through coarse filters. The effluent is finally purified and drained out into the river or used as fertilizer in the fields. The common bacteria involved in sewage disposal are – Coliforms (E. coli), Streptococci, Clostridium, Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, etc.

(iv) Role in Industry: Useful activities of various bacteria are employed in the production of a number of industrial products. Some of these are given below–

(a) Lactic acid: Lactic acid is commercially produced from pasteurized whey (the watery part of milk) through fermentation caused by Lactobacilus bulgaricus and L. delbrueckii.

(b) Curd: Curd is prepared from pasteurized milk by the process called curdling. It is initiated by adding a starter culture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophillus, into the milk at 40°C. Lactobacillus converts lactose to lactic acid whereas Streptococcus causes coagulation of casein due to acidity.

(c) Cheese: Preparation of cheese from the milk involves two main steps – first curdling of milk, and second the subsequent ripening of solid curd by the use of different bacterial strains.

(d) Butter: It is prepared by churning of sweet or sour cream. The microorganisms responsible for preparation of butter cream are – Streptococcus lactis and Leuconostoc citrivorumare. The characteristic butter aroma develops due to a volatile substance – diacetyl. It is produced by the action of streptococcus on pasteurized milk.

(e) Retting process: Fibres of flax, hemp and jute are separated by the process called retting. During this process the stems of the plants are submerged in water, where the bacterial activity results in the rotting of softer parts. The tough bast fibres become loosened and easily separated from each other. These fibres are spun and woven into various articles.


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2021-06-08 19:04:02 CELLULAR CHANGES DURING INJURY

Cellular responses to injury include adaptation (hypertrophy or atrophy, hyperplasiaor metaplasia), reversible injury, and irreversible injury and cell death (necrosis, apoptosis, or necroptosis).

The cellular response to injury depends on several important factors, including the type of injury, duration (including pattern) of injury, severity and intensity of injury, type of cell injured, the cell’s metabolic state, and the cell’s ability to adapt.

The critical intracellular targets that are susceptible to injury are DNA, produc-tion of ATP via aerobic respiration, cell membranes, and protein synthesis.

Important mechanisms of cell injury are as follows:

· Damage to DNA, proteins, lipid membranes, and circulating lipids (LDL) can be caused by oxygen-derived free radicals, including superoxide anion (O2• –), hydroxyl radical (OH•), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).


· ATP depletion: Several key biochemical pathways are dependent on ATP. Disruption of Na+/K+ or Ca++ pumps cause imbalances in solute concentra-tions. Additionally, ATP depletion increases anaerobic glycolysis that leads to a decrease in cellular pH. Chronic ATP depletion causes morphological and functional changes to the ER and ribosomes.


· Increased cell membrane permeability: Several defects can lead to movement of fluids into the cell, including formation of the membrane attack complex via complement, breakdown of Na+/K+ gradients (i.e., causing sodium to enter or potassium to leave the cell), etc.


· Influx of calcium can cause problems because calcium is a second messenger, which can activate a wide spectrum of enzymes. These enzymes include pro-teases (protein breakdown), ATPases (contributes to ATP depletion), phospho-lipases (cell membrane injury), and endonucleases (DNA damage).


· Mitochondrial dysfunction causes decreased oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, formation of mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) channels, and release of cytochrome c (a trigger for apoptosis). Open / Comment

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